Multilayer Carbon Nanotube Capacitor

ABSTRACT

Multilayer carbon nanotube capacitors, and methods and printable compositions for manufacturing multilayer carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are disclosed. A first capacitor embodiment includes: a first conductor; a plurality of fixed CNTs in an ionic liquid, each fixed CNT comprising a magnetic catalyst nanoparticle coupled to a carbon nanotube and further coupled to the first conductor; and a first plurality of free CNTs dispersed and moveable in the ionic liquid. Another capacitor embodiment includes: a first conductor; a conductive nanomesh coupled to the first conductor; a first plurality of fixed CNTs in an ionic liquid and further coupled to the conductive nanomesh; and a plurality of free CNTs dispersed and moveable in the ionic liquid. Various methods of printing the CNTs and other structures, and methods of aligning and moving the CNTs using applied electric and magnetic fields, are also disclosed.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO A RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 13/025,137, filed Feb. 10, 2011, inventors WilliamJohnstone Ray et al., entitled “Multilayer Carbon Nanotube Capacitor”,which is a nonprovisional of and further claims priority under 35 U.S.C.Section 119 to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/306,162,inventors William Johnstone Ray et al., entitled “System, Method andApparatus for Printable Capacitors”, which are commonly assignedherewith, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein byreference with the same full force and effect as if set forth in theirentirety herein, and with priority claimed for all commonly disclosedsubject matter.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention in general is related to energy storage technologyand, in particular, is related to a multilayer carbon nanotube-basedcapacitor and methods of and printable compositions for manufacturing amultilayer carbon nanotube-based capacitor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Current research into electrochemical supercapacitors (also referred toas ultracapacitors or electric double layer capacitors (“EDLCs”)), hasrevealed that these devices may be promising local energy storagedevices. Other available energy storage technologies such as theFaradaic battery and conventional dielectric capacitors have drawbacks.Batteries are characterized by high energy density, low power density,and short cycle life, while dielectric capacitors are low energydensity, high power density and have a long cycle life. In contrast,supercapacitors potentially may be characterized by mid-range energystorage capability, high power density and long cycle life.

Three general types of supercapacitors may be identified, such as: (1)carbon-based active materials that store charge via high surface area;(2) oxidation-reduction (“redox” or pseudo-capacitors) which use fastand reversible surface or near surface reactions for charge storage(such as via transition metal oxides or conducting organic polymers);and (3) hybrid capacitors that combine capacitive or pseudo-capacitiveelectrodes with battery electrodes.

Carbon-based high surface area supercapacitors store electricity byphysical charge separation. Supercapacitor charge is stored throughreversible ion adsorption on high surface area electrodes. Carbonnanotubes (“CNTs”) (such as single-walled carbon nanotubes (“SWCNTs”)and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (“MWCNTs”)) and carbon fibers havebeen explored for use in the electrodes of such carbon-based, highsurface area supercapacitors, typically forming an intertwined, mattedor entangled mesh layer limiting the available surface area for ionadsorption on the exterior of the fibers or nanotubes, and furtherhaving a very large variation in pore size.

Other attempts to use carbon nanotubes have included use of aligned CNTshaving either a closed (capped) or an open (or uncapped) end, but haveproved extraordinarily difficult to manufacture and scale up tocommercial quantities. For example, capped CNTs have been grown directlyon electrode plates to achieve some alignment; in another instance,carbon nanotubes have been aligned by growth of the CNTs through vacuumchemical vapor deposition on a silicon wafer substrate, then metallizedand transferred by hand to an electrode using a double-sided conductingtape, followed by plasma etching to uncap and open the ends and etchmesopores in the CNTs. While theoretically feasible, such alignmentmethods based on the growth of the CNTs are not practical beyond alaboratory environment. Further, such complicated CNT and capacitorfabrication processes are prohibitively expensive, are not scalable andhave not been able to achieve commercial production. Such capacitorstructures have not fully exploited the interior surfaces of the CNTsand the potential pore sizes of CNTs, have not addressed other methodsof producing CNTs and the post-growth alignment of CNTs, and have notaddressed specific energy density limitations of the resultingcapacitors.

Accordingly, a need remains for methods of manufacturing a CNT-basedcapacitor using readily available commercial methods for fabricatingCNTs and using post-growth alignment of the CNTs. Such a CNT-basedcapacitor should exploit the interior surfaces of the CNTs and thepotential pore sizes of CNTs. Such a CNT-based capacitor should becapable of being manufactured at a commercial scale and comparativelylow cost, while simultaneously providing comparatively high powerdensity, high energy density, and long cycle life.

SUMMARY

The exemplary capacitor embodiments have a structure different from thestructures of prior art capacitors, a different fabrication method, anddifferent compositions of matter. Various exemplary capacitorembodiments have an additional layer, namely, free CNTs which aretranslationally and/or rotationally moveable in an ionic liquid 140.Many of the exemplary capacitor embodiments have a secondary supportstructure for the fixed CNTs, which provides a second support to thefixed CNTs at a second location which is separate and spaced apart froma first support location, such as the substrate. The fixed CNTs and thefree CNTs are uncapped at least at one end, and have an interiordiameter matched to be slightly greater than the ion size of a selectedionic liquid. The fixed CNTs have not been grown on an electrode ortransferred directly from a growth plate, but have been dispersed in anionic liquid and deposited with an irregular spacing over a firstconductor, a conductive substrate, or a conductive nanomesh. In manyembodiments, CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures are alignedand moved by a magnetic field to couple the magnetic catalystnanoparticles to the first conductor or conductive substrate. TheCNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures in an ionic liquid alsocomprise a new and novel composition of matter. A novel conductivenanomesh comprised of deposited nanorods is utilized in exemplaryembodiments for coupling CNTs to form fixed CNTs. Various exemplarycapacitors provide greater energy density (or specific energy) than atraditional capacitor, and include a superposition of energycontributions from multiple sources, yielding a device which alsoexhibits characteristics of a traditional battery while still having thecomparatively higher specific power (or power density) and longer cyclelife of a traditional capacitor.

An exemplary capacitor comprises: a first conductor; a first pluralityof fixed carbon nanotubes in an ionic liquid, each fixed carbon nanotubecomprising a magnetic catalyst nanoparticle coupled to a carbon nanotubeand further coupled to the first conductor; and a first plurality offree carbon nanotubes dispersed and moveable in the ionic liquid.

In an exemplary embodiment, for each fixed carbon nanotube of the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes, the magnetic catalyst nanoparticlecoupled to the first conductor supports the carbon nanotube at a firstlocation, and the capacitor further comprises: a support structurecoupled to the first conductor and supporting one or more fixed carbonnanotubes of the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes at least atone or more second locations separate from and spaced apart from thefirst location. The support structure may be separate and distinct fromthe first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes.

An exemplary support structure is a nanofiber support structure, whichmay be formed by electrospinning a polymer. In various exemplaryembodiments, the polymer is at least one polymer selected from the groupconsisting of: polypyrolle; polianiline; polythiophene;polyterthiophene; derivatives of polythiophene and polyterthiophene;poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT);poly(3-(4-fluorophenyl)thiophene) (MPFT);poly(3-(3,4-difluorophenyl)thiophene) (MPFT);poly(3-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-thiophene) (PTFMPT);poly(1-cyano-2-(2-(3,4-ethylenedioxylthienyl))-1-(2-thienyl)vinylene(ThCNVEDT); poly(3-methyl thiophene)(PMeT); and mixtures thereof.Another exemplary support structure is a screen and is spaced apart fromthe first conductor. In exemplary embodiments, the first conductor iscoupled to a substrate or the first conductor is a conductive substrate.Another exemplary support structure is a plurality of elongatedextensions or pillars extending from the substrate, or the firstconductor, or the conductive substrate. Another exemplary supportstructure is a plurality of walls or sides of a plurality of cavities ofthe substrate, or the first conductor, or the conductive substrate.

In exemplary embodiments, for each fixed carbon nanotube, the magneticcatalyst nanoparticle is coupled to the carbon nanotube at a first endof the carbon nanotube, and each fixed carbon nanotube is open oruncapped at a second end opposite the first end coupled to the magneticcatalyst nanoparticle. In exemplary embodiments, each carbon nanotube ofthe first plurality of free carbon nanotubes is open or uncapped atleast at one end. In exemplary embodiments, each fixed carbon nanotubeof the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes is single-walled andeach carbon nanotube of the first plurality of free carbon nanotubes ismulti-walled or single-walled.

In various exemplary embodiments, each fixed carbon nanotube of thefirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes is substantially perpendicularto the plane of the first conductor.

In exemplary embodiments, each carbon nanotube of the first plurality offixed carbon nanotubes and each carbon nanotube of the first pluralityof free carbon nanotubes has an interior diameter greater than aHelmholtz diameter of an ion of the ionic liquid. In other exemplaryembodiments, each carbon nanotube of the first plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes and each carbon nanotube of the first plurality of free carbonnanotubes has an interior diameter between about 0.5 nm and 1.5 nm.

In various exemplary embodiments, the ionic liquid is at least one ionicliquid selected from the group consisting of: butyltrimethylammoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-methyl-3-propylimidazoliumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-hexyl-3-methylimidazoliumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide,1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium thiocyanate, 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-2-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-4-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, diethylmethylsulfoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and mixtures thereof.

In exemplary embodiments, the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle is at leastone catalyst selected from the group consisting of: cobalt, molybdenum,nickel, iron, ruthenium, mixtures thereof alloys thereof and theircompounds. In various exemplary embodiments, at least some of the carbonnanotubes of the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes and at leastsome of the carbon nanotubes of the first plurality of free carbonnanotubes has a chirality of (m, m) where n=m or where the quotient of mminus n is divided by three ((m−n)/3) is an integer.

In various exemplary embodiments, the capacitor further comprises asemipermeable membrane, such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).

In exemplary embodiments, the first plurality of free carbon nanotubesare not coupled to the first conductor, are not coupled to the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes, and are not coupled to thesemipermeable membrane. Instead, the first plurality of free carbonnanotubes are translationally and rotationally moveable in the ionicliquid.

In various exemplary embodiments, the first plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes and the first conductor form a first electrode, and thecapacitor further comprises: a semipermeable membrane between the firstelectrode and a second electrode, the second electrode comprising: asecond conductor; a second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes in theionic liquid, each fixed carbon nanotube comprising a magnetic catalystnanoparticle coupled to a carbon nanotube and further coupled to thesecond conductor; and a second plurality of free carbon nanotubesmoveable in the ionic liquid.

Various methods of fabricating a capacitor are also disclosed. Anexemplary method comprises: depositing a plurality of carbonnanotube-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures dispersed in an ionicliquid over a first conductor, each carbon nanotube-magnetic catalystnanoparticle structure comprising a carbon nanotube coupled to amagnetic catalyst nanoparticle; using an applied magnetic field,aligning and moving the plurality of CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticlestructures toward the first conductor; coupling the magnetic catalystnanoparticles to the first conductor to form a first plurality of fixedcarbon nanotubes; and depositing a first plurality of carbon nanotubesdispersed and moveable in an ionic liquid over the first plurality offixed carbon nanotubes to form a first plurality of free carbonnanotubes.

In exemplary embodiments, prior to the step of depositing a plurality ofcarbon nanotube-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures, the methodfurther comprises: providing a support structure coupled to the firstconductor. In various exemplary embodiments, the step of providing asupport structure further comprises: electrospinning a polymer over thefirst conductor to form the support structure. In other exemplaryembodiments, the step of providing a support structure furthercomprises: attaching a screen or a mesh structure over and spaced apartfrom the first conductor. In various exemplary embodiments, the step ofaligning and moving the plurality of CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticlestructures toward the first conductor further comprises: using theapplied magnetic field, aligning and moving the plurality ofCNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures through the supportstructure and toward the first conductor, or rotating and translatingthe plurality of CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures towardthe first conductor.

The exemplary method may further comprise: applying solder over thefirst conductor. The step of coupling the magnetic catalystnanoparticles to the first conductor to form a first plurality of fixedcarbon nanotubes may further comprise: heating the magnetic catalystnanoparticles, the solder and the first conductor to bond the magneticcatalyst nanoparticles to the first conductor. The exemplary method mayfurther comprise etching the first conductor.

The exemplary method may further comprise: coupling a semipermeablemembrane over the first plurality of free carbon nanotubes; depositing asecond plurality of carbon nanotubes dispersed and moveable in an ionicliquid over the semipermeable membrane to form a second plurality offree carbon nanotubes; and attaching a second electrode over the secondplurality of free carbon nanotubes, the second electrode comprising asecond plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes coupled to a secondconductor.

In various exemplary embodiments, the step of depositing the pluralityof carbon nanotube-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures may furthercomprise printing the plurality of carbon nanotube-magnetic catalystnanoparticle structures dispersed in an ionic liquid over the firstconductor. Also in various exemplary embodiments, the step of depositingthe plurality of carbon nanotube-magnetic catalyst nanoparticlestructures may further comprise printing the first plurality of carbonnanotubes dispersed and moveable in an ionic liquid over the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes.

In exemplary embodiments, a printable carbon nanotube compositioncomprises: an ionic liquid; and a plurality of carbon nanotube-magneticcatalyst nanoparticle structures dispersed in the ionic liquid, eachcarbon nanotube-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structure comprising acarbon nanotube coupled to a magnetic catalyst nanoparticle.

In another exemplary embodiment, a capacitor comprises: a firstconductor; a first conductive nanomesh coupled to the first conductor; afirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes in an ionic liquid and furthercoupled to the first conductive nanomesh; and a first plurality of freecarbon nanotubes dispersed and moveable in the ionic liquid.

In an exemplary embodiment, the first conductive nanomesh is metallic.In another exemplary embodiment, the first conductive nanomesh comprisesgold or palladium nanorods. In another exemplary embodiment, the firstconductive nanomesh comprises metallic nanorods having a diameter ofless than about 100 nm and a length between about 200 nm and about 1.0microns.

In various exemplary embodiments, each fixed carbon nanotube of thefirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes is substantially perpendicularto the plane of the first conductor. In various exemplary embodiments,at least some of the carbon nanotubes of the first plurality of fixedcarbon nanotubes are metallic, conductive or ballistic.

In an exemplary embodiment, the first plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes, the first conductive nanomesh and the first conductor form afirst electrode, and wherein the capacitor further comprises: asemipermeable membrane between the first electrode and a secondelectrode, the second electrode comprising: a second conductor; a secondconductive nanomesh coupled to the second conductor; a second pluralityof fixed carbon nanotubes in an ionic liquid and further coupled to thesecond conductive nanomesh; and a second plurality of free carbonnanotubes dispersed and moveable in the ionic liquid.

Another exemplary method of fabricating a capacitor is disclosed. Theexemplary method comprises: depositing a plurality of conductivenanorods over a first conductor to form a first conductive nanomesh;depositing a first plurality of carbon nanotubes dispersed in an ionicliquid over the first conductive nanomesh and the first conductor; usingan applied electric field and an applied magnetic field, aligning andmoving at least some of the carbon nanotubes of the first plurality ofcarbon nanotubes into the nanomesh and toward the first conductor;coupling at least some of the carbon nanotubes to the conductivenanomesh or to the first conductor to form a first plurality of fixedcarbon nanotubes; and depositing a second plurality of carbon nanotubesdispersed and moveable in an ionic liquid over the first plurality offixed carbon nanotubes to form a first plurality of free carbonnanotubes.

In various exemplary embodiments, the coupling step may further compriseapplying heat to at least some of the carbon nanotubes, to theconductive nanomesh, and to the first conductor to form the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes. In another exemplary embodiment,the coupling step may further comprise sintering at least some of thecarbon nanotubes to the conductive nanomesh or to the first conductor toform the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes.

In various exemplary embodiments, the step of aligning and moving mayfurther comprise rotating and translating at least some of the carbonnanotubes of the first plurality of carbon nanotubes into the nanomeshand toward the first conductor.

The exemplary method may further comprise etching the first conductor;coupling a semipermeable membrane over the first plurality of freecarbon nanotubes; and depositing a third plurality of carbon nanotubesdispersed and moveable in an ionic liquid over the semipermeablemembrane to form a second plurality of free carbon nanotubes.

In various exemplary embodiments, the first plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes coupled to the conductive nanomesh or the first conductorcomprises a first electrode, and the exemplary method may furthercomprise attaching a second electrode over the second plurality of freecarbon nanotubes, the second electrode comprising a second plurality offixed carbon nanotubes coupled to a second conductive nanomesh or to asecond conductor.

In various exemplary embodiments, the step of depositing the firstplurality of carbon nanotubes may further comprise printing theplurality of carbon nanotubes dispersed in an ionic liquid over thefirst conductive nanomesh and the first conductor.

Numerous other advantages and features of the present invention willbecome readily apparent from the following detailed description of theinvention and the embodiments thereof, from the claims and from theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The objects, features and advantages of the present invention will bemore readily appreciated upon reference to the following disclosure whenconsidered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein likereference numerals are used to identify identical components in thevarious views, and wherein reference numerals with alphabetic charactersare utilized to identify additional types, instantiations or variationsof a selected component embodiment in the various views, in which:

FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustrating an exemplary capacitorembodiment.

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary firstcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view illustrating in greater detail fixedCNTs coupled through a magnetic catalyst nanoparticle to a firstconductor to form an electrode.

FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view illustrating in greater detail ionadsorption and packing in the interior of a carbon nanotube and ionadsorption on the exterior of a carbon nanotube.

FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary secondcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary thirdcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary fourthcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary fifthcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary sixthcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 10, divided into FIGS. 10A and 10B, is a flow chart illustrating afirst method of fabricating an exemplary multilayer carbonnanotube-based capacitor.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary system fornanofiber electrospinning for formation of a secondary supportstructure.

FIG. 12 is a diagram illustrating in cross section the use of a magneticfield to orient the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures andcouple the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles to the first conductor (orconductive substrate) to form fixed CNTs.

FIG. 13 is a diagram illustrating in cross section a plurality of fixedCNTs within a nanofiber support structure.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view illustrating an exemplary seventhcapacitor embodiment.

FIG. 15, divided into FIGS. 15A and 15B, is a flow chart illustrating asecond method of fabricating an exemplary multilayer carbonnanotube-based capacitor.

FIG. 16 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary firstsupercapacitor system embodiment.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary secondsupercapacitor system embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

While the present invention is susceptible of embodiment in manydifferent forms, there are shown in the drawings and will be describedherein in detail specific exemplary embodiments thereof, with theunderstanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as anexemplification of the principles of the invention and is not intendedto limit the invention to the specific embodiments illustrated. In thisrespect, before explaining at least one embodiment consistent with thepresent invention in detail, it is to be understood that the inventionis not limited in its application to the details of construction and tothe arrangements of components set forth above and below, illustrated inthe drawings, or as described in the examples. Methods and apparatusesconsistent with the present invention are capable of other embodimentsand of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also, it is tobe understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein, aswell as the abstract included below, are for the purposes of descriptionand should not be regarded as limiting.

FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustrating an exemplary capacitor 100,200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 embodiment. As illustrated, such anexemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 is sealed orencapsulated with a sealant 35, to both provide electrical insulationand to prevent leakage of internal contents or components, such as CNTsand liquids. Also as illustrated, external leads (or wires) 15, 25 areprovided for electrical contact with the corresponding capacitorelectrodes (discussed in greater detail below). The sealant 35 and leads15, 25 may be provided as known or becomes known in the electronic arts.The exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 may be stackedand wired in parallel or in series, and may perform as a capacitor, or abattery replacement, or as a fixed electrical “buffer” storage fordistributed power systems. The exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400,500, 600, 700 is illustrated as having a substantially flat form factorfor ease of explanation, and those having skill in the electronic artswill understand that the exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,600, 700 may have any of various forms, such as rolled, folded, etc.,and any and all such shapes and sizes are considered equivalent andwithin the scope of the disclosure. For example and as discussed ingreater detail below, an exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,600, 700 may be formed through a printing process on comparativelylarge, flexible sheets of a substrate 105, such that the exemplarycapacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 may also be flexible andformed into a wide variety of shapes for any intended purpose.

Also as discussed in greater detail below, the various exemplarycapacitors 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 differ from each otherbased upon various internal structures and compositions, which may beselected or combined in any combination, with all such combinations alsoconsidered equivalent and within the scope of the disclosure. It shouldbe noted that the various cross-sectional views of FIGS. 2 and 5-9 donot illustrate the sealant (or sealing layer) 35 or the leads 15, 25,and those having skill in the art will recognize that those features arereadily added to any of the exemplary capacitors 100, 200, 300, 400,500, 600, 700. It also should be noted that the various cross-sectionalviews of FIGS. 2 and 5-9 are exploded views for purposes of illustrationand are not drawn to scale, with any physical capacitors 100, 200, 300,400, 500, 600, 700 being considerably more compact and typically formedinto any of a plurality of shapes and sizes.

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary first capacitor 100 embodiment. Exemplaryfirst capacitor 100 comprises two different types of carbon nanotube(“CNT”) structures, fixed CNTs 120, 120A (which are fixed, coupled orattached to a first conductor 110) and free (unattached, uncoupled orfree floating) CNTs 130, both in an ionic liquid 140. The fixed CNTs120, 120A and the free CNTs 130 may be single-walled (SWCNTs) ormulti-walled (MWCNTs). In an exemplary embodiment, the fixed CNTs 120,120A are typically single-walled and the free CNTs 130 are typicallyMWCNTs or a mixture of MWCNTs and SWCNTs. The fixed CNTs 120 and freeCNTs 130 may have any chirality; in an exemplary embodiment, areasonably high percentage (e.g., 30-40%) of both the fixed CNTs 120 andthe free CNTs 130 have a chirality which exhibits “metallic” orballistic conductivity (e.g., a conductor or conductive chirality, suchas “arm-chair” chirality (chiral vector of (m, m) where n=m or where mminus n is divisible by 3 to produce an integer quotient or is zero),such as (1,1) chirality)), with the balance exhibiting a semiconductoror other chirality, and either or both conductive and semiconductiveCNTs may be utilized. In another variation described below (withreference to FIGS. 14 and 15), the fixed CNTs 120A are primarily orpredominantly conductive (metallic or ballistic), and the free CNTs 130are typically or predominantly semiconductive.

As discussed in greater detail below, both the fixed CNTs 120, 120A andthe free CNTs 130 are uncapped or open at least one end 145, to allowion adsorption or penetration into the interior of the fixed CNTs 120,120A and the free CNTs 130, in addition to ion adsorption on theexterior of the fixed CNTs 120, 120A and the free CNTs 130, asillustrated in greater detail in FIG. 4 with a positively charged ion165. The fixed CNTs 120, 120A are aligned to be substantiallyperpendicular or orthogonal to the plane of the substrate 105, 105Aand/or the first conductor 110 (and immersed in the ionic liquid 140)(to form a reasonably densely packed “forest” of fixed CNTs 120, 120A,but with sufficient spacing to allow ion adsorption on the exteriorwalls of the fixed CNTs 120), while the free CNTs 130 generally arerandomly dispersed and substantially or at least somewhat free to movein the ionic liquid 140. The open (uncapped) ends 145 of the fixed CNTs120, 120A on the opposing first and second electrodes 150, 155 generallyface each other to facilitate ion transport during charge and dischargecycles and perform significantly better than merely chaotically orrandomly positioned nanocavities of the prior art.

In exemplary embodiments, the interior diameters of the fixed CNTs 120,120A and the free CNTs 130 will have some variation, generally with aknown or approximate statistical variance, but are generally matched orselected to be slightly larger than the ion sizes (Helmholtz diameter)of the anions and cations of the selected ionic liquid 140, allowingions to enter into and pack the interior of the fixed CNTs 120, 120A andthe free CNTs 130, similarly to the packing of a “Roman candle”. In anexemplary embodiment, the interior diameter of the fixed CNTs 120, 120Aand the free CNTs 130 is less than about 5 nm, or more preferably lessthan about 4 nm, or more preferably less than about 3 nm, or morepreferably less than about 2 nm, or more preferably less than about 1nm. In an exemplary embodiment, the interior diameter of the fixed CNTs120 and the free CNTs 130 is between about 0.5 nm and 1.5 nm. In anotherexemplary embodiment, the interior diameter of the fixed CNTs 120, 120Aand the free CNTs 130 is about 0.7 nm. In another exemplary embodiment,there are multiple interior diameters of the fixed CNTs 120, 120A andthe free CNTs 130, generally within a predetermined variance, and may beutilized to accommodate more than one ionic liquid having different ionsizes. In an exemplary embodiment, the fixed CNTs 120, 120A and the freeCNTs 130 have lengths on the order of about 20 μm, or more preferablyless than about 10 μm, or more preferably less than about 5 μm, or morepreferably less than about 2 μm, or more preferably between about 0.5 μmto 1.5 μm.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view illustrating in greater detail fixedCNTs 120 coupled through a magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 to a firstconductor 110 to form a first electrode 150 and a second electrode 155,which may be either an anode or a cathode. In exemplary embodiments, thefixed CNTs 120, 120A (and also free CNTs 130) have been grown in afluid-bed reactor using any of various catalysts, such as “seed” orcatalyst nanoparticles of cobalt, molybdenum, or a combination of cobaltand molybdenum, with the CNTs growing epitaxially from the catalystnanoparticles. In exemplary embodiments, and a significant departurefrom prior art, the CNTs used to form the fixed CNTs 120 have not beencleaved from the catalyst nanoparticles during fabrication and remainattached, specifically at one, non-open end, to the catalystnanoparticles post-fabrication. The catalyst nanoparticles are magnetic,such as comprising cobalt or cobalt-molybdenum, forming magneticcatalyst nanoparticles 125 which are utilized to align, couple andattach the fixed CNTs 120 to the first conductor 110, as discussed ingreater detail below, forming a densely packed “forest” of aligned,fixed CNTs 120. The magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 is specificallyat one, non-open end of a fixed CNT 120 (or free CNT 130), and is not inthe middle or otherwise embedded further into the interior of the CNT.In exemplary embodiments, one or a plurality of CNTs may be coupled to amagnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125, also as illustrated. The free CNTs130 may or may not be attached to the catalyst particles used in theirfabrication, and are illustrated in both forms in FIG. 2. A CNT coupledto the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125, which may be utilized to formeither or both fixed CNTs 120 and free CNTs 130 (when the free CNTs 130which are utilized have the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125), is alsoreferred to herein as a “CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structure”175, depending upon the context, to differentiate it during fabrication,as a CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structure 175 during depositionand alignment, prior to becoming coupled to the first conductor 110 orconductive substrate 105A and thereby becoming a fixed CNT 120. Inexemplary embodiments, the fixed CNTs 120, 120A and the free CNTs 130are open or uncapped at least at one end 145, and the free CNTs 130 andfixed CNTs 120A may be uncapped and open at one or both ends 145(depending upon whether they are coupled to a magnetic catalystnanoparticle 125). The CNTs utilized to form the fixed CNTs 120 havingthe magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125, the fixed CNTs 120A, and thefree CNTs 130 (with or without the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125)and being uncapped or open at least at one end 145 may be obtained, forexample and without limitation, from SouthWest NanoTechnologies, Inc.,at 2501 Technology Place, Norman, Okla. 73071, USA.

In another, seventh exemplary embodiment (700) described below, thefixed CNTs 120A may or may not have the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle125, and are illustrated without the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125.For that embodiment, magnetic and electric fields are utilized to alignand move (rotationally and translationally) the CNTs into contact with aconductive (e.g., metallic) nanomesh, as discussed in greater detailbelow.

Referring to FIGS. 2 and 3, the first conductor 110 is illustrated ascoupled to a substrate 105. In any of various exemplary embodiments, thefirst conductor 110 and the substrate 105 are not separate components,and instead may be formed as a combined or integrated conductivesubstrate 105A (illustrated in FIG. 7). The fixed CNTs 120 are coupledto the first conductor 110 or to a conductive substrate 105A, such asthrough a soldered, sintered, alloyed, or conductive adhesiveconnection, and respectively form first electrode 150 and secondelectrode 155. The first electrode 150 (with free CNTs 130 in an ionicliquid 140) and the second electrode 155 (with free CNTs 130 in an ionicliquid 140) are separated from each other by a semipermeable membrane115 having a pore size sufficiently large to allow comparativelyunimpeded ion flow while preventing touching or other physical contact(and shorting) between the first electrode 150 and the second electrode155. In various exemplary embodiments, the first electrode 150 and thesecond electrode 155 may be configured as parallel plates or sheets(prior to further configuration, such as folding or rolling), eachhaving a substantially flat form factor, and may be flexible ornonflexible. In other exemplary embodiments, such as the capacitor 600embodiment illustrated in FIG. 9, the first electrode 150 and the secondelectrode 155 are each fan-folded and may be flexible or nonflexible.The capacitors 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 also may have any ofvarious overall, resulting shapes, sizes, and form factors, such as byfurther folding or rolling of the opposing electrodes (with theirsandwiched contents, the ionic liquid 140 and the free CNTs 130 on eachside of the semipermeable membrane 115).

It should be noted that the exemplary capacitors 100, 200, 300, 400,500, 600, 700 are effectively comprised of two, mirror image halves,with one half having the first electrode 150 and the other half havingthe second electrode 155. The second electrode 155 may be fabricatedidentically to the first electrode 150, and then placed (upside down orface down, effectively as a mirror image) over the first electrode 150and additional components (free CNTs 130, semipermeable membrane 115,and free CNTs 130), such as by lamination. (As a consequence, it shouldbe noted that in various contexts, the first conductor 110 in the secondelectrode 155 may need to be differentiated from the first conductor 110in the first electrode 150. Therefore, the first conductor 110 in thesecond electrode 155 may also be referred to herein as a “secondconductor” as the context may require, in the claims for example, simplyto differentiate it from the first conductor 110 in the first electrode150; it should be understood that such a reference to a “secondconductor” is referring to a first conductor 110 in the second electrode155 to differentiate it in a context which also refers to the firstconductor 110 in the first electrode 150.)

The free CNTs 130 are not coupled to other structures within thecapacitor 100 (200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700), but to some degree, someof the free CNTs 130 may form or have formed attachments to each other,also as illustrated in FIG. 2. In addition, it is possible that some ofthe free CNTs 130 could conceivably form some type of attachments to thefixed CNTs 120 or the semipermeable membrane 115 or the sealant 35, suchas due to frictional forces, Van Der Waals forces or manufacturingprocess variation, for example and without limitation. Nonetheless, inexemplary embodiments, at least most or the majority of the free CNTs130 are uncoupled to the fixed structures within a capacitor 100, 200,300, 400, 500, 600, 700, such as uncoupled to the fixed CNTs 120, 120A,the first electrode 150, and the semipermeable membrane 115, and areeffectively floating or otherwise free to move in the ionic liquid 140,such that the free CNTs 130 are generally movable in their entiretiesand will move translationally and/or rotationally in response to anelectric field, for both charging and discharging the capacitor 100.This type of movement is to be contrasted to the potential movement offixed CNTs 120, 120A or CNTs utilized in prior art capacitors, in whichone end may be free to move and undulate to some degree, analogously tothe movement of blades of grass in the wind, but are not free to rotateor translate in their entireties.

To preserve exterior surface area, the free CNTs 130 generally aredispersed within the ionic liquid 140 with minimal or comparativelyslight formation of any matting or entanglement. The free CNTs 130 areutilized not only to provide additional interior and exterior surfacearea for ion adsorption, but also to physically impede or otherwise slowthe rate of ion movement during charge and discharge through theirphysical translational and/or rotational movement within the ionicliquid 140, in direct opposition to prior art. The packing (and queuing)of ions with the interior of the fixed CNTs 120, 120A and the free CNTs130 will also serve to impede or delay ion movement, with charge anddischarge occurring more sequentially as ions individually enter or exitthe opening of the fixed CNTs 120 and the free CNTs 130. This effectserves to extend the time period over which charge and discharge mayoccur and provide comparatively higher energy density (or specificenergy), yielding a device which may also exhibit characteristics of atraditional battery.

As mentioned above, the exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,600, 700 embodiments may be formed through a printing or otherdeposition processes, such as through screen, flexographic or Gravureprinting. A first conductor 110 is deposited on the substrate 105, suchas using a conductive ink. Alternatively, a conductive substrate 105Amay be utilized, such as a metal foil or sheet. As discussed in greaterdetail below, a scaffolding or other support structure is also formed orattached, such as a nanofiber support structure 170 formed throughelectrospinning of a polymer and illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 13.CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures 175 (i.e., the CNTs havingthe magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 that will form the fixed CNTs120) are dispersed in an ionic liquid 140 and deposited over the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) and any support structure170, with a magnetic field applied to pull the magnetic catalystnanoparticle 125 (with attached CNT) down to the first conductor 110 (orconductive substrate 105A) or to pull the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle125 (with attached CNT) through the support structure 170 and down tothe first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), such that themagnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 may be electrically coupled to thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) to thereby form thefixed CNTs 120 which are aligned about or substantially perpendicular tothe first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), forming a first(or second) electrode 150 (155). Heat or electromagnetic radiation(e.g., uv light) may be applied to couple (bond or cure) the magneticcatalyst nanoparticles 125 to the first conductor 110 (or conductivesubstrate 105A), and with the corresponding attached CNTs, form thefixed CNTs 120. An additional electric field may also be applied toalign or orient the CNT portion of the fixed CNTs 120, particularly asadditional CNTs are coupled to the first conductor 110 (or conductivesubstrate 105A). The free CNTs 130 (also dispersed in an ionic liquid140, and which may or may not have magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125)are deposited over the fixed CNTs 120, forming a first half of acapacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, followed by deposition orother attachment of the semipermeable membrane 115. Additional free CNTs130 (also immersed in an ionic liquid 140) are deposited over thesemipermeable membrane 115, followed by deposition of a second (orfirst) electrode 155 (or 150), formed as described above for a first (orsecond) electrode 150 (155), such as by folding, lamination or otherplacement, as described in greater detail below. Electric leads 15, 25are attached to the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A)of each electrode 150, 155, and the device may be sealed (sealant 35),forming a capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700.

Ionic liquids are molten-salts that at room temperature haveimmeasurably low vapor pressure, are non-flammable, have high ionicconductivity, have a wide range of thermal and electrochemicalstabilities, and are capable of dispersing various forms of CNTs. Anionic liquid 140 may be selected based upon stability over time andtemperature, a comparatively wide electrochemical window ordecomposition voltage, comparatively high conductivity, capability todisperse CNTs, a lack of corrosiveness (for other components, such asthe CNTs and conductors), purity (e.g., hydrophobic, with water beingthe most typical impurity), and aprotic characteristics (to avoidhydrogen ion discharge at the cathodes). The ionic liquid 140 utilizedherein may be comprised of any one or more ionic liquids and mixtures ofcombinations thereof, including for example and without limitation:butyltrimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumthiocyanate, 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-2-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-4-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, diethylmethylsulfoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and mixtures thereof. Other ionicliquids as utilized in the electronic and electrochemical arts may alsobe suitable, and are considered equivalent and within the scope of thedisclosure.

The magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 may be comprised of any ofvarious magnetic materials, including without limitation cobalt,molybdenum, nickel, iron, ruthenium, combinations and alloys thereofsuch as or cobalt-molybdenum, and their compounds.

The semipermeable membrane 115 may be comprised of any suitablematerial, including without limitation a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFEor Teflon) membrane, such as a 23 μm thick PTFE membrane having a poresize of about 0.05 μm and a porosity of 50-70%, available from WL Gore &Associates. Another suitable semipermeable membrane 115 may be Celgard™thin film available from Celgard LLP, also for example and withoutlimitation. The types and compositions of other components of theexemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 embodiments, suchas substrates 105, 105A and first conductors 110 are described ingreater detail below.

The substrate (or base) 105 may be comprised of any suitable material,such as plastic, paper, cardboard, or coated paper or cardboard, forexample and without limitation. The substrate 105 may comprise anyflexible or nonflexible material having the strength and degree ofelectrical insulation to withstand the intended use conditions. In anexemplary embodiment, a substrate 105 comprises a polyester or plasticsheet, such as a CT-7 seven mil polyester sheet treated for printreceptiveness commercially available from MacDermid Autotype, Inc. ofMacDermid, Inc. of Denver, Colo., USA, for example. In another exemplaryembodiment, a substrate 105 comprises a polyimide film such as Kaptoncommercially available from DuPont, Inc. of Wilmington Del., USA, alsofor example. Also in an exemplary embodiment, substrate 105 comprises amaterial having a dielectric constant capable of or suitable forproviding sufficient electrical insulation for the excitation anddischarge voltages which may be selected. A substrate 105 may comprise,also for example, any one or more of the following: paper, coated paper,plastic coated paper, fiber paper, cardboard, poster paper, posterboard, books, magazines, newspapers, wooden boards, plywood, and otherpaper or wood-based products in any selected form; plastic or polymermaterials in any selected form (sheets, film, boards, and so on);natural and synthetic rubber materials and products in any selectedform; natural and synthetic fabrics in any selected form; glass,ceramic, and other silicon or silica-derived materials and products, inany selected form; building materials and products; or any otherproduct, currently existing or created in the future. In a firstexemplary embodiment, a substrate 105 may be selected which provides adegree of electrical insulation (i.e., has a dielectric constant orinsulating properties sufficient to provide electrical insulation of theone or more first conductors 110 deposited or applied on a first (front)side of the substrate 105), either electrical insulation from each otheror from other apparatus or system components. For example, whilecomparatively expensive choices, a glass sheet or a silicon wafer alsocould be utilized as a substrate 105. In other exemplary embodiments,however, a plastic sheet or a plastic-coated paper product is utilizedto form the substrate 105 such as the polyester mentioned above orpatent stock and 100 lb. cover stock available from Sappi, Ltd., orsimilar coated papers from other paper manufacturers such as MitsubishiPaper Mills, Mead, and other paper products. In another exemplaryembodiment, an embossed plastic sheet or a plastic-coated paper producthaving a plurality of grooves, also available from Sappi, Ltd. isutilized, with the grooves utilized for forming the conductors 110.Suitable substrates 105 also potentially include extruded polyolefinicfilms, including LDPE films; polymeric nonwovens, including carded,meltblown and spunbond nonwovens, and cellulosic paper. The substrate105 may also comprise laminates of any of the foregoing materials. Twoor more laminae may be adhesively joined, thermally bonded, orautogenously bonded together to form the laminate comprising thesubstrate. If desired, the laminae may be embossed.

The exemplary substrate 105, 105A as illustrated in the various Figureshave a form factor which is substantially flat in an overall sense, suchas comprising a sheet of a selected material (e.g., paper or plastic)which may be fed through a printing press, for example and withoutlimitation, and which may have a topology on a first surface (or side)which includes surface roughness, cavities, channels or grooves orhaving a first surface which is substantially smooth within apredetermined tolerance (and does not include cavities, channels orgrooves). Those having skill in the art will recognize that innumerable,additional shapes and surface topologies are available, are consideredequivalent and within the scope of the disclosure.

The first conductor 110 may be comprised of any suitable material,applied or deposited (on a first side or surface of the substrate 105),such as through a printing process, to a thickness depending upon thetype of conductive ink or polymer, such as to about 0.1 to 6 microns(e.g., about 3 microns for a typical silver ink, gold ink, aluminum ink,and to less than one micron for a nanosilver ink). In an exemplarymethod of manufacturing the exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,600, 700 embodiments, a conductive ink, polymer, or other conductiveliquid or gel (such as a silver (Ag) ink or polymer, a nano silver inkcomposition, a carbon nanotube ink or polymer, or silver/carbon mixturesuch as amorphous nanocarbon (having particle sizes between about 75-100nm) dispersed in a silver ink) is deposited on a substrate 105, 105A,such as through a printing or other deposition process, and may besubsequently cured or partially cured (such as through an ultraviolet(uv) curing process), to form the one or more first conductors 110. Inanother exemplary embodiment, the one or more first conductors 110 maybe formed by sputtering, spin casting (or spin coating), vapordeposition, or electroplating of a conductive compound or element, suchas a metal (e.g., aluminum, copper, silver, gold, nickel, palladium).Combinations of different types of conductors and/or conductivecompounds or materials (e.g., ink, polymer, elemental metal, etc.) mayalso be utilized to generate one or more composite first conductors 110.Multiple layers and/or types of metal or other conductive materials maybe combined to form the one or more first conductors 110. In variousexemplary embodiments, a plurality of first conductors 110 aredeposited, and in other embodiments, a first conductor 110 may bedeposited as a single conductive sheet or otherwise attached (e.g., asheet of aluminum coupled to a substrate 105) (not separatelyillustrated).

In an exemplary embodiment, depending upon the applied thickness, thefirst conductor 110 also may be etched to create nano-sized cavities orpores, on the order of 5-10 nm, which may also be filled with a solder,to facilitate attachment of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125. Inanother exemplary embodiment, depending upon the applied thickness, thefirst conductor 110 also may be sanded to smooth the surface and alsomay be calendarized to compress the conductive particles, such assilver.

Other conductive inks or materials may also be utilized to form the oneor more first conductors 110, such as copper, tin, aluminum, gold, noblemetals, carbon, carbon black, single or double or multi-walled CNTs,graphene, graphene platelets, nanographene platelets, nanocarbon andnanocarbon and silver compositions, nano silver compositions (includingnanosilver fiber and nanosilver particle inks), or other organic orinorganic conductive polymers, inks, gels or other liquid or semi-solidmaterials. In an exemplary embodiment, carbon black (having a particlediameter of about 100 nm) is added to a silver ink to have a resultingcarbon concentration in the range of about 0.025% to 0.1%. In addition,any other printable or coatable conductive substances may be utilizedequivalently to form the first conductor(s) 110, and exemplaryconductive compounds include: (1) from Conductive Compounds(Londonberry, N.H., USA), AG-500, AG-800 and AG-510 Silver conductiveinks, which may also include an additional coating UV-1006S ultravioletcurable dielectric (such as part of a first dielectric layer 125); (2)from DuPont, 7102 Carbon Conductor (if overprinting 5000 Ag), 7105Carbon Conductor, 5000 Silver Conductor, 7144 Carbon Conductor (with UVEncapsulants), 7152 Carbon Conductor (with 7165 Encapsulant), and 9145Silver Conductor; (3) from SunPoly, Inc., 128A Silver conductive ink,129A Silver and Carbon Conductive Ink, 140A Conductive Ink, and 150ASilver Conductive Ink; (4) from Dow Corning, Inc., PI-2000 Series HighlyConductive Silver Ink; (5) from Henkel/Emerson & Cumings, Electrodag725A; and (6) Monarch M120 available from Cabot Corporation of Boston,Mass., USA, for use as a carbon black additive, such as to a silver inkto form a mixture of carbon and silver ink. In addition, conductive inksand compounds may be available from a wide variety of other sources.

A conductive substrate 105A may be any type of prefabricated substrate105 discussed above which has been coated or otherwise has deposited aconductor or conductive layer (e.g., a first conductor as describedabove). A conductive substrate 105A may be any type of conductor,mixture of conductors, alloys of conductors, etc., including thosediscussed above, which has or have a form factor suitable for depositionof the CNTs such as, for example and without limitation, a conductivefoil or sheet, such as an aluminum foil, a nickel foil, a carbon foil, aCNT foil, a graphene foil, a silver foil, a gold foil, an iron sheet, asteel sheet, other types of sheet metal, etc.

Conductive polymers which are substantially optically transmissive mayalso be utilized to form the one or more first conductors 110. Forexample, polyethylene-dioxithiophene may be utilized, such as thepolyethylene-dioxithiophene commercially available under the trade name“Orgacon” from AGFA Corp. of Ridgefield Park, N.J., USA, in addition toany of the other transmissive conductors discussed below and theirequivalents. Other conductive polymers, without limitation, which may beutilized equivalently include polyaniline and polypyrrole polymers, forexample. In another exemplary embodiment, carbon nanotubes which havebeen suspended or dispersed in a polymerizable ionic liquid or otherfluids are utilized to form various conductors which are substantiallyoptically transmissive or transparent.

Organic semiconductors, variously called π-conjugated polymers,conducting polymers, or synthetic metals, are inherently semiconductivedue to π-conjugation between carbon atoms along the polymer backbone.Their structure contains a one-dimensional organic backbone whichenables electrical conduction following n− or p+ type doping.Well-studied classes of organic conductive polymers includepoly(acetylene)s, poly(pyrrole)s, poly(thiophene)s, polyanilines,polythiophenes, poly(p-phenylene sulfide), poly(para-phenylenevinylene)s (PPV) and PPV derivatives, poly(3-alkylthiophenes),polyindole, polypyrene, polycarbazole, polyazulene, polyazepine,poly(fluorene)s, and polynaphthalene. Other examples includepolyaniline, polyaniline derivatives, polythiophene, polythiophenederivatives, polypyrrole, polypyrrole derivatives, polythianaphthene,polythianaphthane derivatives, polyparaphenylene, polyparaphenylenederivatives, polyacetylene, polyacetylene derivatives, polydiacethylene,polydiacetylene derivatives, polyparaphenylenevinylene,polyparaphenylenevinylene derivatives, polynaphthalene, andpolynaphthalene derivatives, polyisothianaphthene (PITN),polyheteroarylenvinylene (ParV), in which the heteroarylene group canbe, e.g., thiophene, furan or pyrrol, polyphenylene-sulphide (PPS),polyperinaphthalene (PPN), polyphthalocyanine (PPhc) etc., and theirderivatives, copolymers thereof and mixtures thereof. As used herein,the term derivatives means the polymer is made from monomers substitutedwith side chains or groups.

The method for polymerizing the conductive polymers is not particularlylimited, and the usable methods include uv or other electromagneticpolymerization, heat polymerization, electrolytic oxidationpolymerization, chemical oxidation polymerization, and catalyticpolymerization, for example and without limitation. The polymer obtainedby the polymerizing method is often neutral and not conductive untildoped. Therefore, the polymer is subjected to p-doping or n-doping to betransformed into a conductive polymer. The semiconductor polymer may bedoped chemically, or electrochemically. The substance used for thedoping is not particularly limited; generally, a substance capable ofaccepting an electron pair, such as a Lewis acid, is used. Examplesinclude hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, organic sulfonic acidderivatives such as parasulfonic acid, polystyrenesulfonic acid,alkylbenzenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, alkylsulfonic acid,sulfosalycilic acid, etc., ferric chloride, copper chloride, and ironsulfate.

Those having skill in the electronic or printing arts will recognizeinnumerable variations in the ways in which the one or more firstconductors 110 may be formed, with all such variations consideredequivalent and within the scope of the disclosure. For example, the oneor more first conductors 110 may also be deposited through sputtering orvapor deposition, without limitation. In addition, for other variousembodiments, the one or more first conductors 110 may be deposited as asingle or continuous layer, such as through coating, printing,sputtering, or vapor deposition. Those having skill in the electronic orprinting arts also will recognize innumerable variations in the ways inwhich the CNTs 120, 130 dispersed in an ionic liquid may be deposited,such as through printing, with all such variations considered equivalentand within the scope of the disclosure.

As a consequence, as used herein, “deposition” includes any and allprinting, coating, rolling, spraying, layering, sputtering, plating,spin casting (or spin coating), vapor deposition, lamination, affixingand/or other deposition processes, whether impact or non-impact, knownin the art. “Printing” includes any and all printing, coating, rolling,spraying, layering, spin coating, lamination and/or affixing processes,whether impact or non-impact, known in the art, and specificallyincludes, for example and without limitation, screen printing, inkjetprinting, electro-optical printing, electroink printing, photoresist andother resist printing, thermal printing, laser jet printing, magneticprinting, pad printing, flexographic printing, hybrid offsetlithography, Gravure and other intaglio printing, for example. All suchprocesses are considered deposition processes herein and may beutilized. The exemplary deposition or printing processes do not requiresignificant manufacturing controls or restrictions. No specifictemperatures or pressures are required. Some clean room or filtered airmay be useful, but potentially at a level consistent with the standardsof known printing or other deposition processes. For consistency,however, such as for proper alignment (registration) of the varioussuccessively deposited layers forming the various embodiments,relatively constant temperature (with possible exceptions, discussedbelow, such as for applied heat for bonding magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125 to a first conductor 110 or conductive substrate 105A)and humidity may be desirable. In addition, the various compoundsutilized may be contained within various polymers, binders or otherdispersion agents which may be heat-cured or dried, air dried underambient conditions, or IR or uv cured.

It should also be noted, generally for any of the applications ofvarious compounds herein, such as through printing or other deposition,the surface properties or surface energies may also be controlled, suchas through the use of resist coatings or by otherwise modifying the“wetability” of such a surface, for example, by modifying thehydrophilic, hydrophobic, or electrical (positive or negative charge)characteristics, for example, of surfaces such as the surface of thesubstrate 105, 105A, the surfaces of the various first conductors 110,and/or other surfaces formed during fabrication. In conjunction with thecharacteristics of the compound, suspension, polymer or ink beingdeposited, such as the surface tension, the deposited compounds may bemade to adhere to desired or selected locations, and effectivelyrepelled from other areas or regions.

FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary second capacitor 200 embodiment. The exemplarysecond capacitor 200 embodiment further includes a support structure 170mentioned above, and is otherwise substantially similar or identical tothe exemplary first capacitor 100 embodiment. For this embodiment, thesupport structure 170 is a nanofiber support structure 170 formedthrough an electrospinning process, as discussed in greater detailbelow, and is generally formed separately from a substrate 105, 105A. Anexemplary nanofiber support structure 170 is also illustrated in FIG.13. The support structure 170 provides a secondary (or second) supportfor the fixed CNTs 120 at a second location separate, distinct andspaced apart from a first or primary location of support for the fixedCNTs 120 provided by the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate105A) at the point or area of attachment of the magnetic catalystnanoparticle 125. The support structure 170 generally will provide thisadditional support to some or many (but generally not all) of the fixedCNTs 120, serving to maintain alignment of the fixed CNTs 120 generallyor mostly perpendicular to the first conductor 110 (or conductivesubstrate 105A), thereby preventing excessive curvature and/or excessiveentanglement of the fixed CNTs 120, allowing a higher density of fixedCNTs 120 on the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) andincreasing available surface area for ion adsorption. The fixed CNTs 120which are in contact with the support structure 170 generally will serveto provide support for adjacent fixed CNTs 120 which are not in directcontact with the support structure 170, which in turn may also supportother adjacent, fixed CNTs 120, and so on. As mentioned above, anexemplary support structure 170 may be formed by electrospinning of apolymer, typically prior to deposition of the CNTs which will form thefixed CNTs 120 in an ionic liquid 140. As part of the electrospinningprocess, the nanofiber support structure 170 is fabricated to havepores, voids or opening sizes sufficient to allow passage and pulling ofthe CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures for coupling of themagnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 to the first conductor 110 (orconductive substrate 105A) to form the fixed CNTs 120.

FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary third capacitor 300 embodiment. The exemplarythird capacitor 300 embodiment also includes a support structure 170A,and is otherwise also substantially similar or identical to theexemplary first capacitor 100 embodiment. The support structure 170A isprovided as a screen or mesh configuration, spaced apart from the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) (such as by using posts (orspacers) 195 integrated with or formed as part of the substrate 105,105A or the support structure 170A), and also provides a support for thefixed CNTs 120 at a second location separate, distinct and spaced apartfrom a first or primary location of support for the fixed CNTs 120provided by the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) atthe point or area of attachment of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle125. The support structure 170A generally also will provide thisadditional support to some or many (but generally not all) of the fixedCNTs 120, serving to maintain alignment of the fixed CNTs 120 generallyperpendicular to the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A),thereby also preventing excessive curvature and/or excessiveentanglement of the fixed CNTs 120, also allowing a higher density offixed CNTs 120 and increasing available surface area for ion adsorption.The fixed CNTs 120 which are in contact with the support structure 170generally will also serve to provide support for adjacent fixed CNTs 120which are not in direct contact with the support structure 170, which inturn may also support other adjacent, fixed CNTs 120, and so on. Asmentioned above, an exemplary support structure 170A may beprefabricated as a screen or mesh structure and attached over and spacedapart from the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), withthe support structure 170A having a pore or opening size sufficient toallow passage and pulling of the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticlestructures for coupling of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 to thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) to form the fixedCNTs 120. The openings or pores in the screen or mesh support structure170A are visible in FIG. 6 in the upper half of the cross section ofexemplary capacitor 300. In an exemplary embodiment, the supportstructure 170A comprises a polymer screen; in another exemplaryembodiment, the support structure 170A comprises a comparatively sparsemesh of CNTs (separate from the fixed CNTs 120 and the free CNTs 130).

FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary fourth capacitor 400 embodiment. The exemplaryfourth capacitor 400 embodiment also includes an integrated supportstructure 170B and illustrates a conductive substrate 105A, and isotherwise also substantially similar or identical to the exemplary firstcapacitor 100 embodiment. The support structure 170B is provided as aseries of elongated pillars or columns 180, extending from theconductive substrate 105A (or first conductor 110), and also provides asupport for the fixed CNTs 120 at a second location separate, distinctand spaced apart from a first or primary location of support for thefixed CNTs 120 provided by the conductive substrate 105A (or firstconductor 110) at the point or area of attachment of the magneticcatalyst nanoparticle 125. The support structure 170B generally alsowill provide this additional support to some or many (but generally notall) of the fixed CNTs 120, serving to maintain alignment of the fixedCNTs 120 generally perpendicular to the plane of the conductivesubstrate 105A (or first conductor 110), thereby also preventingexcessive curvature and/or excessive entanglement of the fixed CNTs 120,also allowing a higher density of fixed CNTs 120 and increasingavailable surface area for ion adsorption. The fixed CNTs 120 which arein contact with the support structure 170B generally will also serve toprovide support for adjacent fixed CNTs 120 which are not in directcontact with the support structure 170B, which in turn may also supportother adjacent, fixed CNTs 120, and so on. In this exemplary embodiment,the support structure 170B may be formed integrally with the substrate105 or conductive substrate 105A, e.g., as a textured or embossedsurface, with the support structure 170B having voids or openingsbetween the pillars or columns 180 with a size sufficient to allowpassage and pulling of the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structuresfor coupling of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 to the conductivesubstrate 105A (or first conductor 110) to form the fixed CNTs 120.

FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary fifth capacitor 500 embodiment. The exemplaryfifth capacitor 500 embodiment also includes a plurality of cavities,wells, grooves, channels or cavities 190, the walls or sides 192 ofwhich form an integrated support structure 170C, and is otherwise alsosubstantially similar or identical to the exemplary first capacitor 100embodiment. The support structure 170C is provided as a series of wallsor sides of the cavities 190, extending from the first conductor 110 (orconductive substrate 105A), and also provides a support for the fixedCNTs 120 at a second location separate, distinct and spaced apart from afirst or primary location of support for the fixed CNTs 120 provided bythe first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) at the point orarea of attachment of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125. Thesupport structure 170C generally also will provide this additionalsupport to some or many (but generally not all) of the fixed CNTs 120,serving to maintain alignment of the fixed CNTs 120 generallyperpendicular to the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A),thereby also preventing excessive curvature and/or excessiveentanglement of the fixed CNTs 120, also allowing a higher density offixed CNTs 120 and increasing available surface area for ion adsorption.The fixed CNTs 120 which are in contact with the support structure 170Cgenerally will also serve to provide support for adjacent fixed CNTs 120which are not in direct contact with the support structure 170C, whichin turn may also support other adjacent, fixed CNTs 120, and so on. Inthis exemplary embodiment, the support structure 170C may be formedintegrally with the substrate 105 or conductive substrate 105A, e.g., asa textured or embossed surface, or may be formed as part of the firstconductor 110, with the cavities 190 having a size sufficient to allowpassage and pulling of the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structuresfor coupling of the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 to the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) to form the fixed CNTs 120.

For example, the substrate 105 may include a plurality of cavities (orvoids) 190, which for the selected embodiment, may be formed aselongated cavities, effectively forming channels, grooves or slots (or,equivalently, depressions, valleys, bores, openings, gaps, orifices,hollows, slits, or passages), or may be shaped to be substantiallycircular or elliptical depressions or bores, for example and withoutlimitation. Accordingly, any reference herein to cavities 190 shall beunderstood to mean and include the other, or any other cavity of anyshape or size. The plurality of cavities 190 are spaced-apart, and mayalso be utilized to define a “holding well” for the fixed CNTs 120.While the cavities or channels 190 are illustrated in FIG. 9 assubstantially parallel and oriented in the same direction, those havingskill in the art will recognize that innumerable variations areavailable, including depth and width of the channels, channelorientation (e.g., circular, elliptical, curvilinear, wavy, sinusoidal,triangular, fanciful, artistic, etc.), spacing variations, type of voidor cavity (e.g., channel, depression or bore), etc., and all suchvariations are considered equivalent and within the scope of the presentinvention.

FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary sixth capacitor 600 embodiment. The exemplarysixth capacitor 600 embodiment is initially fabricated as asubstantially flat structure and then provided with a “fan fold”. Thefolding may occur during fabrication of the first electrode 150 and thesecond electrode 155, or may occur after the capacitor 600 is assembledbut prior to sealing. For example, the substrate 105, 105A may beprovided with scoring or other demarcation to facilitate such folding.The exemplary sixth capacitor 600 embodiment includes posts (or spacers)197 to offset the first and second electrodes 150, 155 from each other,and has the fixed CNTs 120 in any of a plurality of orientations oralignments, not merely generally perpendicular, and is otherwise alsosubstantially similar to the exemplary first capacitor 100 embodiment,including the use of the free CNTs 130. In this exemplary embodiment,the fixed CNTs 120 are coupled to the first conductor 110 or conductivesubstrate 105A through the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125, butotherwise may have or assume any orientation, as illustrated. Also inthis exemplary embodiment, the fixed CNTs 120 may or may not be alignedand pulled magnetically to the first conductor 110 or conductivesubstrate 105A, but may simply be deposited over and coupled to thefirst conductor 110 or conductive substrate 105A.

As mentioned above, it is believed that the exemplary capacitor 100,200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 embodiments do not have a simpleexponential drop in voltage over time of the classical capacitor (e.g.,e^(−t/τ), where τ is an RC time constant). Instead, the voltage drop isdelayed due to the separate contributions of the different chargestoring components (e.g., a superposition of the contributions of thedifferent components) and the movement of the free CNTs 130 in the ionicliquid. For example, discharge may occur due to the ion movement awayfrom the exterior of the fixed CNTs 120 and the free CNTs 130 (τ₁), withadditional discharge from ion movement out of the interior of the fixedCNTs 120 and/or the free CNTs 130 (τ₂), and with additional delayed ionmovement due to the movement of the free CNTs 130 (τ₃), each of whichmay occur at different rates, resulting in a superposition of theseseparate contributions, resulting in a higher energy density (orspecific energy), yielding a device also exhibits characteristics of atraditional battery while still having the comparatively higher specificpower (or power density) and longer cycle life of a traditionalcapacitor.

FIG. 10 (divided into FIGS. 10A and 10B) is a flow chart illustrating afirst method of fabricating the exemplary multilayer carbonnanotube-based capacitor, such as the exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300,400, 500, 600 embodiments. FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating anexemplary system for nanofiber electrospinning for formation of ananofiber secondary support structure 170. FIG. 12 is a diagramillustrating in cross section the use of a magnetic field to orient theCNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures 175 and couple themagnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 to the first conductor 110 (orconductive substrate 105A) to form fixed CNTs 120. FIG. 13 is a diagramillustrating in cross section a plurality of fixed CNTs 120 within ananofiber support structure 170. As mentioned above, the exemplarycapacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 embodiments may be formedthrough a printing or other deposition processes, such as throughscreen, flexographic or Gravure printing.

Referring to FIG. 10, beginning with start step 205, a first conductor110 is deposited on the substrate 105, such as by printing a conductiveink or a conductive ink followed by a conductive adhesive, step 210.Alternatively, step 210 may be omitted when a conductive substrate 105Ais utilized, such as a metal foil. A secondary support structure 170 isalso deposited or attached, step 215, such as through electrospinning ofa polymer over the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) orattachment or lamination of a screen-type secondary support structure170A. The CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures 175 which havebeen dispersed in an ionic liquid 140 (and which will form the fixedCNTs 120) are deposited over the first conductor 110 (or conductivesubstrate 105A) and any secondary support structure 170, step 220. Asillustrated in FIG. 12, a magnetic field is applied, step 225, to pullthe magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 (with attached CNT) toward ordown to the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) or topull the magnetic catalyst nanoparticle 125 (with attached CNT) throughthe support structure 170 and toward or down to the first conductor 110(or conductive substrate 105A) (as illustrated in FIG. 13), such thatthe magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 may be electrically coupled tothe first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), step 230, withthe fixed CNTs 120 also aligned about or substantially perpendicular tothe first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) in selectedembodiments, forming a first (or second) electrode 150 (155). In step230, heat or electromagnetic radiation (e.g., uv light) may be appliedto couple (bond or cure) the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 to thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), to thereby form thefixed CNTs 120. Such bonding may include soldering, sintering, alloying,or forming a conductive adhesive bond. An additional electric field mayalso be applied in step 230 to align or orient the CNT portion of thefixed CNTs 120, particularly as additional CNTs are coupled to the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A). A first plurality of thefree CNTs 130 (also dispersed in an ionic liquid 140) are deposited overthe fixed CNTs 120, step 235, followed by deposition or other attachmentof the semipermeable membrane 115, step 240. An additional, secondplurality of free CNTs 130 (also dispersed in an ionic liquid 140) aredeposited over the semipermeable membrane 115, step 245, followed bydeposition of a second (or first) electrode 155 (or 150), formed asdescribed above for a first (or second) electrode 150 (155), such as byfolding, lamination, or other placement step 250. It should be notedthat step 245 may be omitted when the second electrode is formed usingthe same substrate and is folded over to form the capacitor, in whichcase the free CNTs 130 have been deposited in step 235, thesemipermeable membrane 115 coupled over the first electrode in step 240,with the second electrode (with free CNTs 130 from step 235) folded overon top of the first electrode. Electric leads 15, 25 are attached to thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) of each electrode150, 155, step 255, and the device is sealed (sealant 35), step 260,forming a capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, and the method mayend, step 265. Not separately illustrated, there may be additionalcuring steps prior to deposition of additional layers, such as curing ofan electrospun nanofiber secondary support structure 170 prior todeposition of the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures.

For example, first conductors 110 may be formed as two separate areas ona substrate 105, step 210, with steps 215 through 230 performed for eachseparate area, forming first and second electrodes 150, 155. Step 245(deposition of the free CNTs 130), step 250 (attachment of asemipermeable membrane 115), and step 255 (deposition of the free CNTs130 over the semipermeable membrane 115) are performed for a firstelectrode 150. The second electrode 155, having been fabricated one thesecond area of the same substrate 105, may then be attached or coupledby folding the substrate 105, 105A, placing the second electrode 155over the free CNTs 130, semipermeable membrane 115, free CNTs 130, andfirst electrode 150.

Referring to FIG. 11, an exemplary system 305 for nanofiberelectrospinning for formation of a secondary support structure 170comprises a syringe 310 coupled to a syringe pump 315, with a polymerheld in the syringe 310 and ejected through a needle 320 (whichfunctions as an electrode and is subjected to a voltage, such as apositive voltage), with the needle 320 held by a needle holder (having afine movement controller) 325. The polymer which will form the nanofiberis ejected through the needle 320 toward the negative (or groundednegative) electrode 330 which, in conjunction with the movement of theneedle 320 and variations in the electric field location, allows theejected polymer to be shaped (as it is spun onto the substrate 105, 105Aheld above the electrode 330) to create the nanofiber support structure170, such as the nanofiber support structure 170 illustrated in FIG. 13.Fiber density and thickness may also be controlled by varying thedistance between the electrodes, polymer concentration, time and rate ofthe polymer supply, etc. Also as illustrated, power supply 335 providesthe corresponding voltages to the needle 320 and negative electrode 330.Any other system and method of electrospinning which is known or becomesknown in the art may also be utilized equivalently and is consideredwithin the scope of the disclosure.

The nanofiber support structure 170 may be comprised of a conductivepolymer and further contribute to increasing the capacitance of thecapacitor 200, 300, 400 embodiments. There are three basic groups ofconductive polymers (conjugated polymers) which are considered usefulfor conductive-polymer-based supercapacitors, including withoutlimitation: (1) polypyrolle; (2) polianiline; and (3) derivatives ofpolythiophene and polyterthiophene, such as:poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT),poly(3-(4-fluorophenyl)thiophene) (MPFT),poly(3-(3,4-difluorophenyl)thiophene) (MPFT),poly(3-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-thiophene) (PTFMPT),poly(1-cyano-2-(2-(3,4-ethylenedioxylthienyl))-1-(2-thienyl)vinylene(ThCNVEDT), poly(3-methyl thiophene)(PMeT); and mixtures thereof.Additives such as other polymers and CNTs (single or multiwall) may beincluded in the polymer mixture to improve properties of the nanofiberssuch as mechanical strength, surface area, average thickness of fibers,and conductivity.

The nanofiber support structure 170 also may be comprised of anonconductive polymer, which may have greater solubilities and requireless aggressive or corrosive solvents. Such nonconductive polymers mayalso be doped or mixed with carbon nanotubes, amorphous carbon or metalsto become conductive to some extent and also contribute to the overallcapacitance of the devices. Water-soluble polymers (e.g., polyethyleneoxide, polyvinyl alcohol) may be advantageous as enabling use ofnon-toxic solvents.

An exemplary nanofiber support structure 170 is on the order of about0.5 μm to 1.5 μm in height. In an exemplary embodiment, the diameter ofa fiber of the nanofiber support structure 170 is on the order of about20-30 nm, although smaller diameters may also be utilized and are withinthe scope of the disclosure. Also in an exemplary embodiment, the spacesbetween fibers of the nanofiber support structure 170 is on the order ofabout 5-7 nm, although smaller or larger spaces may also be utilized andare within the scope of the disclosure. The nanofiber support structure170 may also be etched to create additional surface area for ionadsorption.

FIG. 12 is a diagram illustrating in cross section the use of a magneticfield to orient the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures 175and couple the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 to the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) to form fixed CNTs 120. Asillustrated, a substrate 105A (or a substrate 105 with a first conductor110) having a support structure 170, in this case a nanofiber supportstructure 170, is moving laterally (direction 183) over support rollers182 and a magnet 185 (which may be a permanent magnet or anelectromagnet), as CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures 175dispersed in an ionic liquid 140 are deposited over the nanofibersupport structure 170, such as part of a printing or other depositionprocess. Not separately illustrated, the conductive substrate 105A orthe first conductor 110 may further have or comprise layer of solder orother bonding agent, such as a solder comprising nickel beads coatedwith bismuth, for example and without limitation. As the CNT-magneticcatalyst nanoparticle structures 175 enter the magnetic field, they arerotated and translated within the ionic liquid 140, being pulled andaligned (or oriented) by the force on the magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125 from the magnetic field and toward the substrate 105Aor first conductor 110, analogously to the movement of a shuttlecockthough the air. As the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 contact orare within a predetermined distance from the conductive substrate 105A(or first conductor 110), heat (or other infrared or electromagneticradiation) is applied, such as through a heat generator 184, to bond themagnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 to the conductive substrate 105A orfirst conductor 110 to form fixed CNTs 120, such as by melting anyapplied solder or sintering the magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125 withthe conductive substrate 105A or first conductor 110, for example andwithout limitation. In addition, not separately illustrated, an electricfield may also be applied to create and additional force to align(orient) and maintain the CNT portion of the CNT-magnetic seednanoparticle structure 175 generally perpendicular to the plane of theconductive substrate 105A or first conductor 110 (with substrate 105).

For the sake of completeness, it should be noted that the conductivesubstrate 105A or first conductor 110 may be magnetic or nonmagnetic,and generally will be nonmagnetic in many embodiments (e.g., comprisedof aluminum, or silver, or carbon), as discussed in greater detailbelow.

Exemplary aligned, fixed CNTs 120, having magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125 bonded to the substrate 105A and/or first conductor110, and with the CNT portion of the CNT-magnetic seed nanoparticlestructure 175 generally perpendicular to the plane of the conductivesubstrate 105A or first conductor 110 (with substrate 105) and supportedby a nanofiber support structure 170, is illustrated in FIG. 13. Itshould be noted, however, that while the CNT portions of the fixed CNTs120 are illustrated as substantially straight and perpendicular for easeof illustration, those having skill in the art will recognize that thefixed CNTs 120, 120A will generally have some degree of curvature,bending, spiraling, and potential undulation within the ionic liquid140.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view (through the 20-20′ plane of FIG. 1)illustrating an exemplary seventh capacitor 700 embodiment. Theexemplary seventh capacitor 700 embodiment also includes a supportstructure 170D comprised of a conductive (or metallic) nanomesh 95, andutilizes fixed CNTs 120A, which may or may not include magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125 (and are illustrated without magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125), utilizes a plurality of cavities (as previouslydiscussed), and is otherwise also substantially similar or identical tothe exemplary first capacitor 100 embodiment. In addition, the exemplaryseventh capacitor 700 embodiment may also be fabricated slightlydifferently, as illustrated and discussed below with reference to FIG.15. The support structure 170D is provided as a mesh configuration.Conductive (or metallic) nanorods (or, equivalently, nano rods), such asgold or palladium nanorods, having a diameter less than about 100 nm andhaving a wide range of lengths (e.g., 200 nm to 1.5 μm, or morepreferably 200 nm to 1.0 μm, or more preferably 300 nm to 1.0 μm, forexample and without limitation) are deposited above or on top of thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), and form a mesh 95,into which the (conductive or ballistic) CNTs will become entangled andcoupled (e.g., by sintering), to form the fixed CNTs 120A. In additionto providing support, the nanomesh 95 also makes one or more electricalconnections to the CNTs and to the first conductor 110, so that thefixed CNTs 120A are electrically coupled to the first conductor 110through the nanomesh 95, in addition to any direct electrical couplingsbetween the fixed CNTs 120A and the first conductor 110. The supportstructure 170D (nanomesh 95) also provides a support for the fixed CNTs120A at one or more second locations separate, distinct and spaced apartfrom a first or primary location of support for the fixed CNTs 120Aprovided by the first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) oranother (first) location on the support structure 170D. The supportstructure 170D generally also will provide this additional support orelectrical coupling to some or many (but generally not all) of thedeposited CNTs, with those CNTs which are coupled thereby forming thefixed CNTs 120A, serving to maintain alignment of the fixed CNTs 120Agenerally perpendicular to the first conductor 110 (or conductivesubstrate 105A), and thereby also preventing excessive curvature and/orexcessive entanglement of the fixed CNTs 120A, also allowing a higherdensity of fixed CNTs 120A and increasing available surface area for ionadsorption. An exemplary support structure 170D, formed as a metallic orconductive nanomesh 95, will typically have a pore or opening sizesufficient to allow passage and pulling of the (conductive or ballistic)CNTs for coupling of the (conductive or ballistic) CNTs to the firstconductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) or to the nanomesh 95 toform the fixed CNTs 120A.

FIG. 15, divided into FIGS. 15A and 15B, is a flow chart illustrating asecond method of fabricating an exemplary multilayer carbonnanotube-based capacitor, such as exemplary seventh capacitor 700embodiment. Referring to FIG. 15, beginning with start step 605, a firstconductor 110 is deposited on the substrate 105, such as by printing aconductive ink or a conductive ink followed by a conductive adhesive,step 610. Alternatively, step 610 may be omitted when a conductivesubstrate 105A is utilized, such as a metal foil. Conductive (ormetallic) nanorods, having a diameter less than about 100 nm and havinga wide range of lengths (e.g., 200 nm to 1.5 μm, or more preferably 200nm to 1.0 μm, or more preferably 300 nm to 1.0 μm, for example andwithout limitation) are deposited above or on top of the first conductor110 (or conductive substrate 105A), and form a nanomesh 95, step 615. Amixture of a plurality of conductive or ballistic CNTs andsemiconductive CNTs (with or more likely without magnetic catalystnanoparticles 125) which have been dispersed in an ionic liquid 140 (andsome of which will form the fixed CNTs 120A) are deposited over thenanomesh 95 and first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A), step620. Alternatively, as a variation of step 620, a plurality ofconductive or ballistic CNTs (without semiconductive CNTs, and alsogenerally without magnetic catalyst nanoparticles 125) which have beendispersed in an ionic liquid 140 (and some of which will form the fixedCNTs 120A) may be deposited over the nanomesh 95 and first conductor 110(or conductive substrate 105A).

Similarly to the illustration of FIG. 12, an electric field and amagnetic field are applied, step 625, using the electric field to alignthe conductive or ballistic CNTs and using the magnetic field to pullthe conductive or ballistic CNTs toward and down into the nanomesh 95,and to some extent through the nanomesh 95 and toward or down to thefirst conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A) (similar to theillustration in FIG. 13). It should be noted that the conductive orballistic CNTs will respond much more strongly to the electric andmagnetic fields compared to the semiconductive CNTs. In this way, theconductive or ballistic CNTs differentially may be electrically coupledto the nanomesh 95 and/or first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate105A) to form fixed CNTs 120A, step 630, with the fixed CNTs 120A alsoaligned about or substantially perpendicular to the first conductor 110(or conductive substrate 105A) in selected embodiments, forming a first(or second) electrode 150 (155). In step 630, heat (e.g., sintering at130 degrees C.) or electromagnetic radiation (e.g., uv light) may beapplied to couple (bond or cure) the conductive or ballistic CNTs to thenanomesh 95 and/or first conductor 110 (or conductive substrate 105A),to thereby form the fixed CNTs 120A, and also to bond the nanomesh 95 tothe first conductor 110. More generally, such bonding also could includesoldering, sintering, alloying, or forming a conductive adhesive bond.As the semiconductive CNTs are much less likely to respond (align andmove) to the applied fields, generally most (or all) of thesemiconductive CNTs will remain dispersed and free in the ionic liquid,thereby forming free CNTs 130. In the event additional free CNTs 130 arenecessary or desirable, a plurality of the free CNTs 130 (also dispersedin an ionic liquid 140) may be deposited over the fixed CNTs 120A, step635, followed by deposition or other attachment of the semipermeablemembrane 115, step 640. An additional, second plurality of free CNTs 130(also dispersed in an ionic liquid 140) may be deposited over thesemipermeable membrane 115 (depending on whether the capacitor 700 willbe formed by folding the substrate 105, 105A as discussed above), step645, followed by deposition of a second (or first) electrode 155 (or150), formed as described above for a first (or second) electrode 150(155), such as by folding, lamination, or other placement step 650.Electric leads 15, 25 are attached to the first conductor 110 (orconductive substrate 105A) of each electrode 150, 155, step 655, and thedevice is sealed (sealant 35), step 660, forming a capacitor 700, andthe method may end, step 665. Not separately illustrated, there may beadditional curing or sintering steps prior to deposition of additionallayers, such as curing or sintering of the nanomesh 95 prior todeposition of the conductive or ballistic CNTs (and semiconductiveCNTs).

In addition, while conductive or ballistic CNTs and semiconductive CNTsare typically produced together within a batch, there are additionalways to enrich or concentrate the percentage of conductive or ballisticCNTs and/or preferentially separate out the conductive or ballisticCNTs, such as by using surfactants which differentially adsorb on CNTswith different chiralities. For example, metallic (conductive orballistic) CNTs may be better dispersed with ionic surfactants, whilesemiconductive CNTs may be better dispersed with non-ionic surfactantssuch as polymers or DNA. The mixture of CNTs deposited over the nanomesh95 will then have a higher percentage of conductive or ballistic CNTs,which will tend to increase the capacitance of the capacitor 700.

A first way to enrich the mixture of CNTs with metallic (conductive orballistic) CNTs is to disperse CNTs with polymers such aspoly(N-decyl-2,7-carbazole) [2] and poly[9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl],such as with sonication, and use a centrifuge for separating dispersedand non-dispersed CNTs. The precipitate will be enriched with metallicCNTs. This action can be repeated several times. Then the precipitationwill be dispersed with a surfactant suitable for an application. Asecond way is to consider two phase immiscible system (like water/oil).When an ionic surfactant is dissolved in one phase and non-ionicsurfactant is dissolved in another phase, metallic and non-metallic CNTswill have tendency to accumulate in different phases, with this processbeing repeated several times to generate the metallic CNTs enrichedphase.

It should also be noted that the fixed CNTs 120, 120A will generally beplaced and secured with irregular, and to some degree random, spacingover the substrate 105A or first conductor 110. Such varied andirregular spacing between the fixed CNTs 120, 120A is illustrated inFIGS. 2, 5-7, and 14 for example. Various fabrication techniques,however, as they become more refined empirically, will tend to limitsuch spacing irregularity to within a predetermined variance. This is insharp contrast to the alignment of CNTs in the prior art, whichgenerally have a much more regular and predetermined spacing between andamong the CNTs as they are fabricated directly on the electrodes ortransferred directly from a silicon growth wafer.

In addition, while illustrated as coupled generally entirely across afirst conductor 110 or conductive substrate 105A, it should also benoted that the fixed CNTs 120, 120A may be coupled in any desiredpattern, within such predetermined variance. For example, the fixed CNTs120, 120A may be patterned into spaced apart hexagonal areas, with“streets” of conductor between them, for example and without limitation.Such patterning may be effective in adjusting the overall resistance ofan exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700.

FIG. 16 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary firstsupercapacitor system 405 embodiment. As illustrated, exemplarycapacitors 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 may be utilized as one ormore banks or arrays of capacitors to store energy from one or morephotovoltaic panels 410, with any given capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400,500, 600, 700 selected using selector or switch 415 (which may alsoprovide fault isolation, for example). Discharge and isolation control(420) may be provided, with power or energy from the capacitors 100,200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 provided to a power aggregator (430) forproviding current or voltage output, and under the control of a powerbank controller 425, as illustrated. Not separately illustrated, varioussensors (illustrated in FIG. 17) are typically provided for use inproviding feedback of various voltage and current levels to the powerbank controller 425. The controller 425 (and controller 525, below)typically implement or control interfaces such as a user interface, adata interface, isolation control, dynamic demand control,instrumentation and sensing, various safety matters, etc.

FIG. 17 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary secondsupercapacitor system 505 embodiment. As illustrated, exemplarycapacitors 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 may be utilized as one ormore banks or arrays of capacitors to store energy and provide power toa utility, home or business, for example. Current from one or more banksor arrays of capacitors 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, subject tosurge and transient protection (510) and load control (515) is providedto one or more inverters 520, 530 to generate AC power, also under thecontrol of a controller 525 (with feedback provided through one or moresensors 535, such as a high impedance sampling network).

In summary, the resulting exemplary capacitor 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,600, 700 embodiments have a structure different from the structures ofprior art capacitors, a different fabrication method, and differentcompositions of matter, with the following nine new and novel featuresprovided as summary highlights. First, the exemplary capacitor 100, 200,300, 400, 500, 600, 700 embodiments have an additional layer, namely,the free CNTs 130 which are translationally and/or rotationally moveablein an ionic liquid 140. Second, the exemplary capacitor 200, 300, 400,500 embodiments have a secondary support structure 170, 170A, 170B, 170Cfor the fixed CNTs 120, which provides a second support to the fixedCNTs 120 at a second location which is separate and spaced apart from afirst support location, such as the substrate, and which is notcomprised of the fixed CNTs 120 themselves (i.e., the secondary supportstructure 170, 170A, 170B is in addition to the fixed CNTs 120). Third,the fixed CNTs 120 and the free CNTs 130 are uncapped at least at oneend, and have an interior diameter matched to be slightly greater thanthe ion size of the selected ionic liquid 140. Fourth, the fixed CNTs120 have not been grown on an electrode or transferred directly from agrowth plate, but have been dispersed as CNT-magnetic catalystnanoparticle structures 175 in an ionic liquid 140 and fifth, depositedwith an irregular spacing over a first conductor 110 or conductivesubstrate 105A. Sixth, the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticle structures175 are aligned and moved by a magnetic field to couple the magneticcatalyst nanoparticles 125 to the first conductor 110 or conductivesubstrate 105A. Seventh, the CNT-magnetic catalyst nanoparticlestructures 175 in an ionic liquid 140 comprise a new and novelcomposition of matter. Eighth, a novel conductive nanomesh comprised ofdeposited nanorods is utilized in exemplary embodiments for couplingCNTs to form fixed CNTs 120A. Ninth, an exemplary capacitor 100, 200,300, 400, 500, 600, 700 provides greater energy density (or specificenergy) than a traditional capacitor, and includes a superposition ofenergy contributions from multiple sources (e.g., ion movement to andfrom the exterior of the fixed CNTs 120 and the free CNTs 130 (τ₁), ionmovement into and out of the interior of the fixed CNTs 120 and/or thefree CNTs 130 (τ₂), and delayed ion movement due to the translationaland/or rotational movement of the free CNTs 130 (τ₃)), yielding a devicewhich also exhibits characteristics of a traditional battery while stillhaving the comparatively higher specific power (or power density) andlonger cycle life of a traditional capacitor.

Although the invention has been described with respect to specificembodiments thereof, these embodiments are merely illustrative and notrestrictive of the invention. In the description herein, numerousspecific details are provided, such as examples of electroniccomponents, electronic and structural connections, materials, andstructural variations, to provide a thorough understanding ofembodiments of the present invention. One skilled in the relevant artwill recognize, however, that an embodiment of the invention can bepracticed without one or more of the specific details, or with otherapparatus, systems, assemblies, components, materials, parts, etc. Inother instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are notspecifically shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects ofembodiments of the present invention. One having skill in the art willfurther recognize that additional or equivalent method steps may beutilized, or may be combined with other steps, or may be performed indifferent orders, any and all of which are within the scope of theclaimed invention. In addition, the various Figures are not drawn toscale and should not be regarded as limiting.

Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment”, “anembodiment”, or a specific “embodiment” means that a particular feature,structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodimentis included in at least one embodiment and not necessarily in allembodiments, and further, are not necessarily referring to the sameembodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, orcharacteristics of any specific embodiment may be combined in anysuitable manner and in any suitable combination with one or more otherembodiments, including the use of selected features withoutcorresponding use of other features. In addition, many modifications maybe made to adapt a particular application, situation or material to theessential scope and spirit of the present invention. It is to beunderstood that other variations and modifications of the embodiments ofthe present invention described and illustrated herein are possible inlight of the teachings herein and are to be considered part of thespirit and scope of the present invention.

It will also be appreciated that one or more of the elements depicted inthe Figures can also be implemented in a more separate or integratedmanner, or even removed or rendered inoperable in certain cases, as maybe useful in accordance with a particular application. Integrally formedcombinations of components are also within the scope of the invention,particularly for embodiments in which a separation or combination ofdiscrete components is unclear or indiscernible. In addition, use of theterm “coupled” herein, including in its various forms such as “coupling”or “couplable”, means and includes any direct or indirect electrical,structural or magnetic coupling, connection or attachment, or adaptationor capability for such a direct or indirect electrical, structural ormagnetic coupling, connection or attachment, including integrally formedcomponents and components which are coupled via or through anothercomponent.

The dimensions and values disclosed herein are not to be understood asbeing strictly limited to the exact numerical values recited. Instead,unless otherwise specified, each such dimension is intended to mean boththe recited value and a functionally equivalent range surrounding thatvalue. For example, a dimension disclosed as “40 mm” is intended to mean“about 40 mm.”

All documents cited in the Detailed Description of the Invention are, inrelevant part, incorporated herein by reference; the citation of anydocument is not to be construed as an admission that it is prior artwith respect to the present invention. To the extent that any meaning ordefinition of a term in this document conflicts with any meaning ordefinition of the same term in a document incorporated by reference, themeaning or definition assigned to that term in this document shallgovern.

Furthermore, any signal arrows in the drawings/Figures should beconsidered only exemplary, and not limiting, unless otherwisespecifically noted. Combinations of components of steps will also beconsidered within the scope of the present invention, particularly wherethe ability to separate or combine is unclear or foreseeable. Thedisjunctive term “or”, as used herein and throughout the claims thatfollow, is generally intended to mean “and/or”, having both conjunctiveand disjunctive meanings (and is not confined to an “exclusive or”meaning), unless otherwise indicated. As used in the description hereinand throughout the claims that follow, “a”, “an”, and “the” includeplural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Also asused in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow,the meaning of “in” includes “in” and “on” unless the context clearlydictates otherwise.

The foregoing description of illustrated embodiments of the presentinvention, including what is described in the summary or in theabstract, is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention tothe precise forms disclosed herein. From the foregoing, it will beobserved that numerous variations, modifications and substitutions areintended and may be effected without departing from the spirit and scopeof the novel concept of the invention. It is to be understood that nolimitation with respect to the specific methods and apparatusillustrated herein is intended or should be inferred. It is, of course,intended to cover by the appended claims all such modifications as fallwithin the scope of the claims.

It is claimed:
 1. A capacitor comprising: a first conductor; a firstmetal, conductive nanomesh coupled to the first conductor; a first ionicliquid layer comprising an ionic liquid, wherein the first ionic liquidlayer is nonpolymeric; a first layer of carbon nanotubes comprising afirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes in the ionic liquid andfurther coupled to the first metal, conductive nanomesh, whereinsubstantially all of the carbon nanotubes of the first plurality offixed carbon nanotubes are aligned substantially perpendicular to theplane of the first conductor; and a second layer of carbon nanotubescomprising a first plurality of free carbon nanotubes which areuncoupled, dispersed and translationally and rotationally moveable inthe first ionic liquid layer; wherein substantially all of the carbonnanotubes of the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes and the firstplurality of free carbon nanotubes are open or uncapped at least at oneend.
 2. The capacitor of claim 1, wherein the first conductor is aconductive substrate.
 3. The capacitor of claim 1, wherein the firstmetal, conductive nanomesh comprises gold or palladium nanorods.
 4. Thecapacitor of claim 1, wherein the first metal, conductive nanomeshcomprises metal nanorods having a diameter of less than about 100 nm anda length between about 200 nm and about 1.0 microns.
 5. The capacitor ofclaim 1, wherein the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes furthercomprise multi-walled carbon nanotubes or single-walled carbonnanotubes.
 6. The capacitor of claim 1, wherein each carbon nanotube ofthe first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes and each carbon nanotubeof the first plurality of free carbon nanotubes has an interior diametergreater than a Helmholtz diameter of an ion of the ionic liquid.
 7. Thecapacitor of claim 1, wherein each carbon nanotube of the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes and each carbon nanotube of thefirst plurality of free carbon nanotubes has an interior diameterbetween about 0.5 nm and 1.5 nm.
 8. The capacitor of claim 1, whereinthe ionic liquid is at least one ionic liquid selected from the groupconsisting of: butyltrimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumthiocyanate, 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-2-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-4-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, diethylmethylsulfoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and mixtures thereof.
 9. Thecapacitor of claim 1, further comprising: a semipermeable membrane, thesemipermeable membrane comprising polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). 10.The capacitor of claim 1, wherein the capacitor further comprises: asecond conductor; a second metal, conductive nanomesh coupled to thesecond conductor; a second ionic liquid layer comprising the ionicliquid, wherein the second ionic liquid layer is nonpolymeric; a thirdlayer of carbon nanotubes comprising a second plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes in an ionic liquid and further coupled to the second metal,conductive nanomesh, wherein substantially all of the carbon nanotubesof the second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes are alignedsubstantially perpendicular to the plane of the second conductor; afourth layer of carbon nanotubes comprising a second plurality of freecarbon nanotubes dispersed and translationally and rotationally moveablein the second ionic liquid layer; and a semipermeable membrane betweenthe first and second ionic liquid layers; wherein substantially all ofthe carbon nanotubes of the second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubesand the second plurality of free carbon nanotubes are open or uncappedat least at one end.
 11. A capacitor comprising: a first conductor; afirst metal nanomesh coupled to the first conductor, the first metalnanomesh comprising gold or palladium nanorods having a diameter of lessthan about 100 nm and a length between about 200 nm and about 1.0microns; a first ionic liquid layer comprising an ionic liquid, whereinthe first ionic liquid layer does not include a polymer or polymericprecursor; a first layer of carbon nanotubes comprising a plurality offixed carbon nanotubes in the ionic liquid and further coupled to themetal nanomesh, wherein substantially all of the carbon nanotubes of thefirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes are aligned substantiallyperpendicular to the plane of the first conductor; and a second layer ofcarbon nanotubes comprising a plurality of free carbon nanotubesdispersed and translationally and rotationally moveable in the ionicliquid of the first ionic liquid layer; wherein substantially all of thecarbon nanotubes of the first plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes andthe first plurality of free carbon nanotubes are open or uncapped atleast at one end; and wherein the first plurality of free carbonnanotubes are translationally and rotationally moveable in the firstionic liquid layer.
 12. The capacitor of claim 11, wherein the capacitorfurther comprises: a second conductor; a second metal nanomesh coupledto the second conductor, the second metal nanomesh comprising gold orpalladium nanorods having a diameter of less than about 100 nm and alength between about 200 nm and about 1.0 microns; a second ionic liquidlayer comprising the ionic liquid, wherein the second ionic liquid layerdoes not include a polymer or polymeric precursor; a third layer ofcarbon nanotubes comprising a second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubesin the ionic liquid of the second ionic liquid layer and further coupledto the second metal nanomesh, wherein substantially all of the carbonnanotubes of the second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes are alignedsubstantially perpendicular to the plane of the second conductor; afourth layer of carbon nanotubes comprising a second plurality of freecarbon nanotubes dispersed and translationally and rotationally moveablein the second ionic liquid layer; and a semipermeable membrane betweenthe first and second ionic liquid layers; wherein substantially all ofthe carbon nanotubes of the second plurality of fixed carbon nanotubesand the second plurality of free carbon nanotubes are open or uncappedat least at one end.
 13. The capacitor of claim 11, wherein the ionicliquid is at least one ionic liquid selected from the group consistingof: butyltrimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumthiocyanate, 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-2-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-4-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, diethylmethylsulfoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and mixtures thereof.
 14. A capacitorcomprising: a first conductor; a first metal nanomesh coupled to thefirst conductor; a first ionic liquid layer comprising an ionic liquid,wherein the first ionic liquid layer does not include a polymer orpolymeric precursor; a first layer of carbon nanotubes comprising afirst plurality of fixed carbon nanotubes in the ionic liquid of thefirst ionic liquid layer and further coupled to the first metalnanomesh, wherein substantially all of the carbon nanotubes of the firstplurality of fixed carbon nanotubes are aligned substantiallyperpendicular to the plane of the first conductor; a second layer ofcarbon nanotubes comprising a first plurality of free carbon nanotubesdispersed in the first ionic liquid layer, the first plurality of freecarbon nanotubes both translationally and rotationally moveable in theionic liquid of the first ionic liquid layer; a second conductor; asecond metal nanomesh coupled to the second conductor; a second ionicliquid layer comprising the ionic liquid, wherein the second ionicliquid layer does not include a polymer or polymeric precursor; a thirdlayer of carbon nanotubes comprising a second plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes in the ionic liquid of the second ionic liquid layer andfurther coupled to the second metal nanomesh, wherein substantially allof the carbon nanotubes of the second plurality of fixed carbonnanotubes are aligned substantially perpendicular to the plane of thesecond conductor; a fourth layer of carbon nanotubes comprising a secondplurality of free carbon nanotubes dispersed in the second ionic liquidlayer, the second plurality of free carbon nanotubes bothtranslationally and rotationally moveable in the ionic liquid of thesecond ionic liquid layer; and a semipermeable membrane between thefirst and second ionic liquid layers; wherein substantially all of thecarbon nanotubes of the first and second pluralities of fixed carbonnanotubes and the first and second pluralities of free carbon nanotubesare open or uncapped at least at one end.
 15. The capacitor of claim 14,wherein the first and second metal nanomeshes comprise gold or palladiumnanorods having a diameter of less than about 100 nm and a lengthbetween about 200 nm and about 1.0 microns, and wherein each of thefirst and second conductors comprises a conductive substrate.
 16. Thecapacitor of claim 14, wherein the first and second pluralities of fixedcarbon nanotubes comprise single-walled carbon nanotubes.
 17. Thecapacitor of claim 14, wherein the first and second pluralities of freecarbon nanotubes comprise multi-walled carbon nanotubes or single-walledcarbon nanotubes or both multi-walled carbon nanotubes and single-walledcarbon nanotubes.
 18. The capacitor of claim 14, wherein each carbonnanotube of the first and second pluralities of fixed carbon nanotubesand each carbon nanotube of the first and second pluralities of freecarbon nanotubes has an interior diameter greater than a Helmholtzdiameter of an ion of the ionic liquid.
 19. The capacitor of claim 14,wherein each carbon nanotube of the first and second pluralities offixed carbon nanotubes and each carbon nanotube of the first and secondpluralities of free carbon nanotubes has an interior diameter betweenabout 0.5 nm and 1.5 nm.
 20. The capacitor of claim 14, wherein theionic liquid is at least one ionic liquid selected from the groupconsisting of: butyltrimethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-hexyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide,1-methyl-3-propylimidazolium iodide, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazoliumthiocyanate, 1-methyl-1-propylpiperidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-2-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-4-methylpyridiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidiniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, diethylmethylsulfoniumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, and mixtures thereof.